Vortices and Fluid Salients


THE STRUCTURING OF MOVING FLUIDS

Vortices and Fluid Salients  
(The Structuring of Moving Fluids) [3]

Michael A. Gorycki, Ph.D.       (Revised June 2, 2018)                    



ABSTRACT  

The structuring of moving fluids, as expressed by fluid salients, appears to be responsible for the formation of a variety of natural phenomena. Some workers have noted the similarities between water vortices, satellite images of hurricanes and telescopic views of grand design spiral galaxies, but have not speculated on the cause of this intriguing resemblance. It has been suggested that the centripetal force of the hurricane is in equilibrium with its centrifugal force and if conditions are right, the central open throat of the eye may form. I suggest that this equilibrium is also responsible in the water vortex, tornado, and that it also forms and maintains the structure of grand design spiral galaxies. It also can be recognized in twirling ice skaters.

Limiting the discussion of this mechanism to various types of vortices suggests that not only do hurricanes, water vortices, tornadoes, and grand design spiral galaxies present correlatable features, but that, regardless of their disparate natures, they all appear to have a spiral/standing wave/toroidal/vortex structure. Topics for discussion include; the standing wave structure of these vortices, the causes of the counterclockwise rotation of hurricanes and also most tornadoes in the Northern Hemisphere, why grand design spiral galaxies are not winding up, a detail of some spiral galaxy rotation curves, and a possible cause of barred galaxies.


INTRODUCTION

In a number of web sites, I discuss a variety of phenomena that all seem to be the result of the operation of what I call the fluid salient mechanism. All of the sites listed below will eventually be posted. 


My first website, [1] 

[1] Fluid Salients and the Structuring of Moving Fluids
[2] Fluid Salients and the Formation of Beach Cusps 

[3] Fluid Salients and Spiral Galaxies and Other Vortices    

[4] Fluid Salients and Round Phenomena

[5] Fluid Salients and Linear Structures

[6] Fluid Salients and Stream Meandering 

[7] Fluid Salients and the Jet Stream

[8] Fluid Salients and Planar Structures


is a monograph in which I suggest that the gross structure of the feeder bands of hurricanes is the result of centripetal radial fluid salient formation having a spiral configuration. In the present website I discuss additional vortex phenomena, listed below, in an effort to show the relationships they have with each other and the fluid salient mechanism. I submit that all vortices present a spiral/standing wave/toroidal/vortex structure. The following topics will be discussed here:

Hurricanes
Water Vortices 
Tornadoes
Grand Design Spiral Galaxies 
Spiral Galaxy Rotation Curves
Galaxies as Gyroscopes
Barred Spiral Galaxies
Flocculent and Other Forms of Spirals
Comparable Features


Hurricanes 


(Atmospheric Lows)

Before discussing hurricanes and their relationship to other vortices, it is necessary to understand how hurricanes form, and why they rotate in a counterclockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere. I find some discussions concerning these atmospheric low pressure systems to be confusing.


The following image (Fig. 1a), 























(see myweb.cwpost.1iu.edu/vdivener/ers_l/chap_6.htm)

Fig. 1a. A web image which shows the direction of air going from an atmospheric high pressure center to a low. This suggests a possible causal relationship between the two, with the high pressure system to be dominant. Wind direction in the high is in accordance with the Coriolis Effect, but is not in the low because the incoming wind is rotating counterclockwise. 


taken from the web, shows air (in the Northern Hemisphere) traveling from an anticyclonic high into a nearby cyclonic low. It suggests that the high is aiding in the rotational direction and structure of the low. The low does not represent a hurricane because its central pressure is close to the average pressure at sea level. It is considered that the high’s direction of rotation is due to the Coriolis effect. The traveling air reverses direction in the low and rotates in a counterclockwise fashion, but the incoming wind should be tangential when it enters the low’s center. This angle does not satisfy actual movement of air since it is radially entering the low, nor is the Coriolis effect satisfied for the same reason. Fig. 1b


























WeatherQuestions.com 

Fig. 1b. Similar to Fig. 1a 


is similar to Fig. 1a, but the flow near the center of the low can be construed to be tangental and rotating in the proper direction for hurricanes in the Northern Hemisphere. It also has the proper low pressure for a hurricane’s center, but does not show air vectors entering the center of the low. The high seems passive, exhibiting an average sea level pressure at its center, with even lower pressures further out. The diagram ignores the increased rotation at the center of the low which is caused by rising air warmed by the ocean.


I would find Fig. 1b to be a more familiar mechanism if the jet stream were also shown as flowing between the high and low, and down and to the right, as in Fig. 2.


























(see Skeptical Science Jet Stream)


Fig. 2. Typical high and low pressure centers associated with the polar jet stream, and located in the upper North Temperate Zone with a cool cyclonic low. 

The spirals would then derive their respective circulations from shearing effects of the associated polar jet stream, and not by any effect that the anticyclonic “high” has on the cyclonic “low”, or their interrelationship with the jet stream which I have shown to be a meandering stream [7] (also, see next paragraph). As atmospheric structures associated with the polar jet stream, the vortices would be located in the upper North Temperate Zone and not close to the equator. Also, in this case, the high represents warmer air, and the low, colder, whereas the anti-cyclonic highs associated with hurricanes are depicted as sinking cold air, and cyclonic lows are composed of rising warm air. 

The highs and lows in Fig. 2 are also analogous to the paired zones of retarded/reversed flow, as seen in either side of the sinuosities of meandering streams in nature and on the stream plate [6], [7], which are an integral component of the fluid salient mechanism. That is, with water flowing from left to right (west to east), the counterclockwise (cyclonic) reversed flow is north of the stream, and the clockwise (anti-cyclonic) reversed flow is to the south. There also is no suggestion of any vertical motions related to temperature differences in these stream plate vortices, as well as any effect they may have on each other. 


(The Coriolis Effect)

In addition, the Coriolis effect, considered by some as causative of the cyclonic rotation of hurricanes, is weakest at the Equator near to where most hurricanes form and develop. As a result it seems to be an ineffective mechanism in regard to promoting any rotational direction of hurricanes, but it has become almost axiomatic that the right-turning Coriolis effect produces a left-turning hurricane. This may be a case of trying to fit a familiar but unsuitable mechanism (the Coriolis effect) to a phenomenon when it is easier to produce, recognize, and interpret a new mechanism (if possible) and then find a phenomenon that is explained by it. For example, Einstein (1926) thought that the Coriolis effect caused the enhancement of the right-hand banks of streams that happened to display “serpentine shapes”. It is now considered that the Coriolis effect with regard to rotation is too weak to be operative. Also, meandering streams can be found at or close to the Equator, where the Coriolis effect would be impotent (see Coriolis effect [6]). A similar situation occurs with Langmuir circulation. It is considered to be horizontal convective rolls at the surface of large bodies of water caused by the motion of the unstructured wind above (see Wikipedia, Horizontal convective rolls). My argument in [8], (Cloud Rows),(Langmuir Circulation Cells) and (Ablative Snow Striae), describes the (fluid salient) structuring as occurring in the moving overlying air.

In Fig. 3,


Fig. 3. A diagram from the Internet (“The Coriolis Effect and Weather”). 


the Coriolis Effect shows air (yellow arrows), apparently under the influence of the pressure differential, to radially approach the eye of a hurricane. This motion is contrary to the actual wind direction in the hurricane and crosses the path of the hurricane’s cyclonic structure. At some point the air somehow makes a sharp right turn, apparently to satisfy the Coriolis Effect, and only then are the arrows briefly aligned with the hurricane’s tangential wind direction as the arms are drawn in to the eye. Still, the counterclockwise rotation of the entire hurricane is everywhere apparent. Another view is that if the yellow lines were shown to move tangentially along the arms of the hurricane, they would have to turn left as the eye is approached. This does not agree with the Coriolis Effect. I suggest that the pressure differential (a radial motion) and wind direction (a tangential motion) have been confused. That is, the counterclockwise deflection of the yellow arrows in Fig. 3 do not represent active movement of air causing the cyclonic rotation, but are being deflected and passively caused to rotate in a counterclockwise direction caused by the hurricane.


The following figure (Fig. 4)















Fig. 4.  A web image of radially incoming air (arrows) again curving to the right as in Fig. 3, and tangentially impinging on the low, where it is then suggested they cause a counterclockwise rotation. The diagram would be more accurate if the arrows could be drawn as curving counterclockwise to conform to the tangential approach of the centripetally moving air.

is similar to Fig. 3, with the arrows still everywhere curving to the right instead of to the left in an attempt to suggest that the Coriolis Effect is supplying air to the low pressure area of the eye, but in direct contradiction to the structure of the arms of the hurricane. The arrows should point into the low, and not away from it. In both figures the air approaches at right angles to the hurricane’s tangential arms and away from the low. One might suggest that the air does enter the low, but it would then be passively (but still) rotating to the left instead of to the right. Also, one could draw the arrows in Fig. 4 curving to the right, but entering the low going in a clockwise direction. This, however, would cause the hurricane’s center to rotate in a clock-wise direction. This still suggests that the directional flow of the arrows is passively controlled by the counterclockwise rotation of the hurricane.

Sketches similar to Figs. 1a and 1b are presented on the internet to describe the mechanism of the formation of highs and lows. Some workers propose that the descending air of the high, reaching the ground, and responding to the Coriolis effect, spreads with an anticyclonic (clockwise) spin which, when transmitted to the nearby low (see Figs. 1a and 1b), causes the air rising in the center of the low to have a cyclonic spin which is contrary to the Coriolis effect. In contrast,  speaking of lows, Wikipedia, (the Coriolis effect) states, “As air flows radially inward at low levels, it begins to rotate cyclonically in order to conserve angular momentum. Similarly, as rapidly rotating air flows radially outward near the tropopause, its cyclonic rotation decreases and ultimately changes sign at a large enough radius, resulting in an upper-level anticyclone”. I suggest that the warm air  of the low, rising over the ocean, reaches a height and temperature that can no longer sustain that motion (see (Outflow) below) and laterally escapes the low’s vertical axis. As a result, in the Northern Hemisphere and seemingly in accordance with the Coriolis effect, the elevated, cooled air will passively rotate clockwise and form a descending anticyclonic high at a distance from the low. Reverse flow is also seen in the throat or outer limits of the water vortex, tornado and grand design spiral galaxies, and these phenomena will be discussed below as (Reverse Planar Flow) or (Outflow).


Fig. 5,




Fig. 5. Satellite image of Hurricane Leslie 9 sept 2012 showing associated cloudless highs. The nearest high to Leslie, east of Puerto Rico, is 720 miles away. It seemingly has little effect on the rotation direction and speed of Hurricane Leslie. I suggest the opposite is true, that reverse planar flow from the hurricane at height produces the nearby, clockwise rotating high.


shows Hurricane Leslie’s associated and apparently dependent high, which does not seem too intense. The highs are not visible because they lack the conspicuous cloud cover that lows exhibit in satellite photos. We are still left with the problem of why the hurricane low always rotates counterclockwise? To solve this problem we must take a larger view of the system involved to determine the origins of the counterclockwise rotation.


(The Initiation and Direction of Rotation of Hurricanes)

Many of the hurricanes that affect the Gulf Coast region of the United States originate as a stream of thunderstorm complexes in the eastern Atlantic. Using a geosynchronous satellite loop of the whole 2010 Atlantic Hurricane Season <A>

<A> www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_YyTW5bjbU  (see minutes 2:10-3:00)

we see that most of these mature, rapidly counterclockwise spinning complexes are carried west, by the Northeast Trade Winds, from just off the west coast of Africa at about 15˚ north of the equator. This is at a latitude at which the Coriolis Effect is not very efficient. Donn (1965) states that they “appear to originate in easterly waves, which are troughs of low pressure embedded in and moving with the trade-wind air stream”, but says nothing about their direction of rotation or spacing. The numerous thunderstorm complexes that are produced each invariably develop a counterclockwise rotation which I feel is caused by shearing (drag folding due to the fluid salient mechanism) of the easterly waves against the warm moist air ascending near the equator, and are not assisted by any associated high as seen in Fig. 5. The rising warm air is called the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) against which the Northeast Trade Winds converge and which may also assist in causing a vertical uplift to the complexes produced mainly by later heating. Other workers have not recognized the effect of the ITCZ in the production of hurricanes (see Tropical cyclones) <B>.



The Coriolis Effect appears to be the cause of thunderstorm complexes and hurricanes moving to the east at 30˚ to 60˚ north, but this is at the latitude at which the Prevailing Westerlies are in effect. However, the motion of the wind at the center of each complex continues to spiral in a cyclonic direction. This dynamic mechanism seems to be responsible for the production if a steady stream of cyclonic disturbances without the mention, or necessity, of associated highs as seen in Fig. 5. Most interesting is that early hurricanes of the 2010 season (see <A>); Danielle, Earl, Fiona, and Gaston are all about 5-6 seconds apart (2.10-2.26 minutes) on the video, and later hurricanes; Igor, Julia, and Lisa are slower, all about 9 seconds apart (2.39-2.55 minutes). This suggests they are large scale drag folds and the spacings between are the zones of stretching seen in Fig. 6 [5]. I suggest that early hurricanes are also an example of the fluid salient mechanism. This will be discussed just after Fig. 6 in [5].


 (Axial Flow)

As the complex traverses the open body of the Gulf of Mexico, if the Gulf water is much warmer than 80°F, a thunderstorm complex can pick up a great deal of moisture and become more massive and wide. The heated air rises, bolstering the possible original uplifting effect of the (ITCZ), resulting in a lowered pressure at the complex’s center. Air moves centripetally toward the center from a distance, and the complex increases its rotational velocity. It can become a tropical depression if winds at its center reach 23-39 mph. If its velocity exceeds a sustained value of greater than 74 miles per hour, the system is considered a hurricane. Again, its cyclonic rotation is due to shearing against the ITCZ, and appears to be much more intense than any opposition that could be generated by the Coriolis Effect. Similar conditions prevail in the Southern Hemisphere, causing those hurricanes to rotate clockwise. 

Upon reaching the Gulf Coast from the south, or the Atlantic Coast from the east, the hurricane often becomes asymmetrical, causing a large amount of rainfall in its east, or northeast quadrant, combined with a lack of available sustaining moisture over dry land to the north, or northwest. At this point, the hurricane looses a great deal of mass and momentum as rain falls and wind speeds slow. This general structuring is called the Buys-Ballot law.


(Open Throat)

The increase in rotational velocity of a hurricane is similar to a crouching ice skater going into a spin. It is important to note that the skater’s increase in spin is a function of muscular contraction as she extends her arms, legs, and body up, along a vertical axis, and as her trunk, arms, and leg are forcibly drawn in. The hurricane’s spin depends on the differences in air pressure and rotational speed at the central low and its attraction for the slower rotating, higher pressure air at the outer reaches of the storm. It is important to note that the ice skater is balancing two opposing forces; the first, to increase her spin by reducing the average radius of her body (centripetal), and the second, a counteracting force (centrifugal) that would increase her radius and slow her spin (along with friction with the air and contact with the ice). Her spin is an example of an equilibrium condition, but minus the open vortex.
  
Importantly, the rotational velocity of a powerful hurricane can be such that a low pressure eye consequently forms, located at the center of mass of the incoming air (the low). The presence and diameter of the eye depends on the equilibrium developed between the central centrifugal force caused by the speed of rotation, and an outer centripetal force caused by the low pressure at the center. As an aside, I developed this concept of an equilibrium condition existing between centrifugal and centripetal forces in a vortex, only to find that it was already worked out for hurricanes. Miller and Edwards (2001) state, “Hurricanes owe their famous vortex structures to an equilibrium between the centrifugal force of air particles traveling at high speeds around the hurricane and the centripetal force created by low pressure at the storm’s center.” It should be emphasized that the open throat of the eye may also be seen in the water vortex (whirlpool), and tornado <B>. I also contend that this equilibrium is the cause of the central bulge of grand design spiral galaxies. In all cases, I contend that they each are composed of a spiral/standing wave/toroidal/vortex structure.


The eye of the hurricane is a low-pressure, normally calm, clear region within the eye wall down which cool air descends. At the same time, to accommodate the influx of warm surrounding air, the air rises up in the cloudy region just outside the eye of the hurricane where rotation is fastest. The ascending air is called the outflow, and will be discussed later. Also, due to the lessening atmospheric pressure at height, and the centrifugal force of the spin, the eye of the hurricane widens and sometimes exhibits an outward curving (stadium) effect at the eyewall’s top (see Wikipedia, Tropical Cyclone), which is also seen in the water vortex and tornado. 



(Reverse Axial Flow and Hot Towers)

It should be noted that vortices exhibit reverse axial flow. In the case of hurricanes, it is represented simply by cool air flowing inside and down the eye against the hurricane’s vertically growing structure. The flow is passive and depends on the centrifugal formation of the eye.   

Hot towers are cumulonimbus clouds that reach into the stratosphere, and grow with the hurricane’s structure. They often are located just outside the eye and indicate an impending strengthening of the hurricane due to a “release of latent heat during condensation and subsequent freezing of warm, moist air in areas of convection about 5 kilometers (3.1 mi) wide, (see Hot tower – Wikipedia). 


It is here suggested that the vertical extension of the hot tower (Fig. 6) may be caused by a centrifugal force resulting from that rotation, causing a widening of the eye. It is, in part, also due to height, and a constricting force on the eyewall, resulting from a centripetal force acting to close the eye. It is proposed that “they rise high due to the large amount of latent heat released as water vapor condenses into liquid and freezes into ice.” (see Wikipedia; hot towers). The fact that they are usually associated with the eyewall suggests the eyewall has a constricting and cooling effect. The result is a vertical extension of cloudy material just outside the eye. Hot towers will again be discussed in the section on water vortices.







Fig. 6. Upper level outflow caused by hot tower rising just outside the eye where rotation is fastest.  It is here suggested that the extension of the hot tower is caused by a centrifugal force resulting from that rotation, causing a widening of the eye and a constricting force resulting from a centripetal force acting on the eyewall to close the eye. The centripetal force derives from incoming air attracted to the low pressure center. These forces are discussed in the next sections on the water vortex and spiral galaxies (See: “Forecasters find new hurricane clues - NBC News”).  


(Fluid Salient Mechanism)

In a discussion of the circular drain of a reservoir spillway, [8] <E>, I describe centripetal fluid salients that form because of the accordionization of the radial approach of the surface water toward the center of the drain. In [4] I also describe radial centrifugal fluid salients of ink drop splotches moving away from an impact center.

Important to this discussion is my suggestion that circumferential compression (accordionization) causes symmetrically disposed, evenly spaced spiral arms (a version of fluid salient formation) to develop in the hurricane forming process. They become visible as the incoming air approaches a common center (the low), and are forced upward into colder regions of the atmosphere where condensation can occur. These spiral arms are the rain bands and, in keeping with the fluid salient mechanism, the clear areas between the arms are evenly spaced zones of retarded flow where cool, dry air sinks. 

As with the ice skater, the size of the eye is controlled by counteracting centripetal and centrifugal forces. That is, the spin increases as she draws in her arms, increasing the centripetal force. If she opens her arms a little, helped by the centrifugal force of the spin, and holds them in position, the spin slows a little, and then remains constant (neglecting friction). This is analogous to the open center that may form in all vortices, its diameter (and depth) a function of the equilibrium between the centrifugal and centripetal forces. As a result of the inhibition of adjacent fluids to enter the open center, circumferential centripetal compression causes the evenly spaced fluid salients to form and remain on the outside.


(Standing Waves) 

A good physical model of the hurricane mechanism at the ocean’s surface can be produced by simply pressing an index finger against the center of a light-weight cloth draped over a stool’s round seat, and twisting in a counterclockwise direction. Lengthy, evenly spaced, symmetrically disposed ridges, which extend both radially and vertically, are thus generated over a large portion of the cloth as it is drawn in toward the center of rotation. They simulate the structure contained by spinning complexes initiated by the Northeast Trade Winds and the ITCZ that come in from near the equator and may form hurricanes. The ridges wrap around the center of rotation, and separate with distance from the eye. 


What is most important to note is that there is only an apparent winding up of the arms around hurricanes as shown by satellite animation (see 0:28-1:00 - Visible Satellite Imagery of Hurricane Katrina (2005))- YouTube. That is, while the inner portion of the spiral arms near the ocean’s surface seem to swirl around the low in a counterclockwise manner they and the outer, more distal portions tend to form a planar standing wave pattern. The hurricanes tend to move northeast across the earth’s surface as the result of the Prevailing Westerlies wind direction, and probably not the Coriolis Effect (which, again, has no effect on the direction of rotation). Wind, and the clouds which make up and define the spiral arms (feeder bands), do move along the standing arms toward the eye and give the impression of a spiraling (stretching) inward of the entire hurricane pattern. As a hurricane grows, and more warm air is entrained by the vortex, the centripetal force increases. The air heads toward the eye or center and the limbs can become wider and vertically thicker. Although the volume of the limbs increase, the standing wave structure continues to be retained.

An analogous situation occurs if water streams from a hose that is held stationary. The water moves quickly in response to pressure and gravity, but the structure of the pour is motionless (Fig.7).
























Fig. 7. Water pouring from a hose forming a stationary structure composed of quickly moving water. This is analogous to an arm of the standing wave of a hurricane composed of air quickly moving to the hurricane’s center, or the properties of the arm of a spiral galaxy.

This concept, that any vortex, including hurricanes, the water vortex, grand design spiral galaxies, and probably tornadoes, are all standing waves does not seem to be appreciated in the literature. Also, the symbols for hurricanes, shown on TV weather videos, are incorrect. As just described, the symbols’ arms should not rotate, but do represent the counterclockwise motion of the moving clouds that comprise the arms.  


That is, the overall spiral standing wave structure of the hurricane is preserved [1] in spite of the distorting, contrary winds, and the appearance and disappearance of arms, and portions of arms, which are a function of elevation, condensation, and the formation of ice crystals (Fig. 8). 

 

Fig. 8. Hurricane Irene (NASA photo) exhibiting fixed pattern of spiral arm standing wave.


(Overrolling)

Further from the center of the physical model, the cloth ridges tend to form standing waves, but also tend to overroll in a clockwise direction toward their concave sides <C>. 

<C> www.youtube.com/watch?v=r8TG_cKBeB8 (see 0.07-0.17 sec.)

Please note in <C> what seems to be overrolling of the proximal ends of some arms at the center of the hurricane with less twisting further from the center. In this example the rotational speeds and centrifugal effect are not great enough to cause the eye to open. This is also similar to the description of the disky-bulge in the center of spiral galaxies that have not opened enough to produce a classical bulge, or in the second water vortex experiment (both presented later) where an open throat did not form. This twisted cloth model will be referred to for all vortices described in this essay. Overrolling is very obvious in water vortices but it should be obvious that the general structure of the arm is not overrolling, but the water it contains is.

It should also be noted that lows which do not achieve hurricane status can exhibit fragmentary, almost straight, rain bands that maintain a multiple standing wave structure as they traverse the earth’s surface  (see (Rainbands)[8]). 

As an aside, in my first web site [1], I described star dunes (oghurd dunes) as resulting from the action of hot air rising vertically over each dune in desert regions (Folk, 1971), and suggested that the structure of each is due to the action of the fluid salient mechanism acting radially inward. A physical model for this structuring of each star dune can be produced by simply pinching a cloth at its center and lifting straight up. The radial ridges of cloth that are produced represent zones of retarded flow where the sand comprising the ridges accumulates, while the depressions in between represent the scouring action of wind (fluid) salients. Note that there is no overrolling as with the twisted cloth model. Star dunes may be enhanced by dune peaks, already present, that preferentially are heated by early and late sunlight as well as direct, vertical sunshine at midday. That is, the peaks offer more surface area to be heated by the sun. This would cause winds that form a stellate, centripetal standing wave pattern of several radially symmetrical in-blowing salients at each dune on either side of the prominent star ridges. As centripetal incoming salients approach a dune center, they transport low-lying sediment in the zones of retarded flow, but the standing structure of the ridges and depressions is fixed. The dunes can maintain their locations over prolonged periods so that some can have long-lived geographic names.

Star dunes also appear in a Bénard-like manner in two-dimensional arrays due to a planar structuring of plumes of rising hot air (See the star dunes of northeastern Algeria). Bénard-like patterns can also be initiated in other phenomena involving featureless planar surfaces [4]. As with the initiation and development of an array with a Bénard-like structure, the dunes themselves also reinforce, stabilize, and maintain the centripetal structure of the wind. Thus, each dune can grow in mass to an optimal size, and contribute to the Bénard-like array over time.  Of course, in this situation, the wind salients over each dune do not exhibit the more complicated spiral component of hurricanes. 

The usual explanation for star dune formation is multi-directional wind regimes. However, I feel that this Bénard-like phenomenon may be better explained by the fluid salient mechanism. 


(Outflow)


In the following diagram please note the cloud shield above a hurricane. It is formed by the rising warm air of the eyewall causing an outflow jet reaching its maximum height at the top of the troposphere. It is called cloud top pressure, the altitude above which clouds do not extend.




 Fig. 9. Diagram of a hurricane showing the counterclockwise rotation of the inflowing, spiraling winds, and the associated outflow with its clockwise rotational direction. Please note that the entire spiral structure is a standing wave, and the outflow cloud shield in the top and lower right image is exaggerated when compared to the lower left image and satellite photos (See Fig. 6).


(Reverse Planar Flow)

In the outflow there is often a clockwise motion to the clouds making up the arms of the hurricane. In the following website please note both the counterclockwise and clockwise direction of motion of the clouds in the arms <D>.


In the following website, there is a standing wave at the center of the hurricane extending into the outer portion to the arms. The motion of the clouds making up the arms is counterclockwise. At the west side of screen (at 0.06-0.25 sec.), the outflow portion is rotating in a clockwise direction <E>.


This clockwise motion of the outflow is seen in Fig. 9.

It is suggested that the reverse motion of the outflow is the result of cloud top pressure. This causes the evenly spaced fluid salients that produce arms comprised of high cirrus clouds to be displaced radially away from the eye. They become visible when ice crystals form as the formerly invisible arms extend into the higher elevations. As mentioned, they extend in a clockwise motion, increasing their length as they flow above the more robust effects of the hurricane near the earth’s surface and their radius of curvature increases radially away from the center of the hurricane. They also produce a standing wave, visually merging with the standing wave portion of centripetal, inflowing air at the ocean’s surface, and thus maintain the hurricane’s general pattern (Fig. 9) <F>.


As can be seen in this time lapse, there is a clockwise spin to the outer arms of the hurricane. The standing wave structure of the entire hurricane is maintained (see 1:58 minutes) but the outer arms extend in a clockwise manner (see 1:39 minutes). However, this can also be merely due to the influence of the Prevailing Westerlies at 30-60 degrees latitude having a slowing and reversing effect on the cyclonic flow of the hurricane to thrust the air of upper and outer standing waves to the east. Finally, I would like to suggest that reverse planar flow (outflow) is also seen on the faces of the water vortex and spiral galaxies, and its origins for all three phenomena will be discussed below as (Reverse Planar Flow) in the sections on Water Vortices and Grand Design Spiral Galaxies.

  
Water Vortices

(Fluid Salient Mechanism)


The ridges (salients) formed by hurricane arms are also similar to those produced as water forms a vortex over a drain. A standing wave structure is maintained, but the water overrolls down the vortex of the whirlpool (Fig. 10).








Fig. 10. Water vortex exhibiting standing wave of fluid salients as water approaches the vortex throat (www.uvs-model.com) (Oceanic whirlpool). See also YouTube “Demopolis Lock Whirlpools”, <G> for the video of a whirlpool exhibiting a standing wave of fluid salients. The partially open throat of the vortex and the depressed region surrounding it are due to the beginning of equilibrium between the centrifugal force of the spinning water and the centripetal force of the incoming water, the reduced hydrostatic pressure near the surface, and descent of water down the vortex. Note also the overrolling of the salients toward the throat in most of the following video. See also Google, “tourbillon barrage de la Rance whirlpool”. 




This is also true for the arms of grand design spiral galaxies (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11. Grand design spiral galaxy exhibiting a number of fairly evenly spaced, and symmetrical arms similar to the hurricane depicted in Fig. 6 and the standing wave pattern shown for the water vortex seen in Fig. 10. The classical nuclear galactic bulge at the center of spiral galaxies is analogous to the open throat of the water vortex and the eye of the hurricane because it often contains only red old stars indicating the bulge does not contain much star-forming gas, it being also excluded by opposing centripetal and centrifugal forces. Some galaxies are composed of only two arms and some are not radially symmetrical. Slight asymmetry of some arms suggests interference from the proximity of nearby galaxies, or variations in density of incoming gas.


(Experimentation)

A number of simple water vortex experiments and observations were performed here that seem to provide evidence for a relationship between the water vortex and the structuring of hurricanes, tornadoes, and spiral galaxies. Materials required for the water vortex experiments are a container comprised of an ordinary white plastic five-gallon bucket (their walls usually are slightly tapered) with a 1 cm diameter drain hole centered in its bottom, a well-fitting plug, a length of chain, and a squeeze bottle of ink, or food coloring. To facilitate the experiments, the container is centrally supported on and over a second, similar container using two 40 cm lengths of wooden 2”X4”s forming about a 45˚ angle for security. The 2”X4”s permit the drain hole to be plugged or unplugged from beneath during the experiments. A third, empty bucket can replace the bottom container when it fills to allow the water to be recycled. 

If the upper container is filled and the plug removed but not stirred, a clockwise or counterclockwise rotating vortex forms, either early, late, or not at all. This depends on the currents initially introduced when the container was filled, or if the water is allowed to become quiescent.

By stirring the water in the upper container in a counterclockwise “cyclonic” direction, using a length of 2 cm diameter dowel, it simulates hurricanes in the northern hemisphere. While stirring, the end of the dowel is kept in contact with the container’s walls so that rotation of the water is uniformly circular. When the plug is removed from beneath the container, the rotating water drains into the second container and an active water vortex quickly forms. Radial symmetry of the rotating water is assured and is free of asymmetry artifacts as both the hole and stirring are centered on the container’s axis. Use of a nearly cylindrical container, coaxial drain hole, and circular stirring obviate any confusing artifacts in the dynamics of the experiments as opposed to problems presented by irregularly shaped sinks, offset drains, etc.


Experiment 1

(Standing Waves)

The first experiment involves partially filling the plugged container with water to about 10 cm from its rim. By imparting a very fast initial rate of rotation to the water and then removing the plug, the centrifugal force generated can cause the initial diameter of the vortex throat created to be so great that for a brief period the hydrostatic load on the container’s bottom in the vicinity of the drain is overcome. That is, for a while, after a complete vortex is established, little or no water will exit the drain after the drain plug is removed. At this point, the vortex, at and near the upper water surface, has roughly the appearance of a hurricane with an eye; or a spiral galaxy with a central bulge. Note that it is a standing wave. It can persist, as is, for about 15 seconds and is comprised of a number of prominent, radially symmetrically disposed, evenly spaced, spiral ridges of inflowing water that do not change shape or rotate (see Figs. 7 and 10 and <F>). The rotating water centrifugally rises at the sides of the container, then lowers when the vortex starts to close and flows down the drain hole.


(Axial Flow) (Overrolling)

The ridges, as seen also in the hurricane and spiral galaxy, are generated by a uniform, circumferential centripetal accordionization due to the radial component of water motion toward the vortex throat where the energy of rotation is greatest. Again, the opening of the vortex throat was caused by a balance between the centripetal and centrifugal forces created by the rapid stirring. The ridges are bunched at the vortex throat and are tangential to it, becoming larger and more separate with distance from the center of rotation. They also may terminate before reaching the container’s wall. This suggests that friction with the container’s wall causes the water’s rotation to be insufficient to maintain the vortex structure of the standing wave pattern at that radial distance from the vortex throat. Each of the spiral arms of the vortex points in the same general direction of water motion and is curved in the direction of rotation because the spiral near the center is tighter than further out. There also appears to be overrolling (toward the vortex throat) of each ridge on its concave side (again, see Fig. 10) and <G>. 

If the standing wave pattern becomes faint, the water can be re-stirred. This centrifugally reactivates the open throat which the centripetally induced salients can’t enter, but also causes them again to become prominent. The even spacing about the throat, exhibited by the spiral ridges and their overrolling, are further evidence of the operation of the fluid salient mechanism. This spiral pattern and overrolling is analogous to that of the hurricane structure and that produced by the twisted cloth model. If the cloth is both twisted and its center is pulled down slightly through a hole in a table, it also simulates the form of a water vortex, with the spiral arms extending away from the vortex center. 

As an aside, a standing wave can become generated upstream from an obstruction in the bed if a stream. The wave and obstruction are both of limited extent. The water is moving, but the obstruction, the wave, and the observer are stationary. The same is true in Fig. 7. There, a fixed source of water creates a standing wave for a fixed observer, but the water is moving. A similar situation ensues as a ship slowly traverses a body of water. The ship’s blunt bow produces cross waves directly in front of the ship, which extend as diverging waves on either side to form the wake. The cross waves are of limited extent, but they, the observer, and the obstruction (the bow) are moving, while the water is stationary (Fig. 12).



























Fig. 12. A swimmer, slowly moving through water, creates a rounded bow wave in front of him.


The effect here is that as far as the observer is concerned, the bow wave is a standing wave. Observing the point of a stick in a still pool of water, as it is drawn away from an observer, mimics the effect of the bow of a moving ship. If movement of the stick is suddenly halted, the “bow wave” becomes a portion of the familiar spreading circular pattern, which develops whenever a stone is thrown into a pool. Instantly, the limited “standing” “bow wave” made by the stick becomes a semicircular “standing” wave that dramatically increases in diameter as we follow it as it moves across the water’s surface. Finally, throwing a stone into a pool of water produces the familiar circular ripple pattern, but here, the cause of the disturbance (the stone, or obstruction), the water, and the observer are stationary, while the “standing wave” moves and expands across the water surface in all directions. This situation becomes more complicated if the water is moving, as in a gently flowing stream. If a stone is cast into the water, the circular ripple pattern becomes distorted. That portion moving upstream flattens while the downstream part extends and becomes drawn out. The amount of distortion depends on the speed of the stream. The distortion becomes even more complicated if the stone, or a drop of water, falls onto the surface of a slowly rotating water vortex in the container described here. The surface water is rotating at various rates, presenting the fastest rate of motion near the center of rotation as it also moves in a counterclockwise, circular direction. The closer to the center of rotation, the slower the induced circular waves travel “up-current” against the circular flow. The down-current speed of the induced waves is enhanced since they travel with the rotation of the vortex, but also decreases with greater distance from the center of rotation. This observation is mentioned because it is unusual and might be confused with counter-rotation as described below.


(Open Throat) 

Fast rotation in experiment 1 generates a convex surface to the water, rising from the vortex throat toward the container’s wall. This convex surface is similar to the concave stadium effect sometimes noted at the upper region of hurricanes and is due to the centrifugal force of the rotating water, reduced hydrostatic pressure near the surface, and descent of water down the vortex. Note again, the overrolling of the salients near the upper regions of the vortex throat.

After the initial rapid stirring, the vortex throat that has been formed narrows very quickly due to a slowing of rotation (a reduction of centrifugal force) caused by internal friction within the water, and friction against the wall and bottom of the container. Water then begins to drain from the container. At this point, which is the usual situation for water vortices, water motion is spiral; a combination of circular, radially inward and downward, but a fading standing wave pattern is maintained. It should also be noted that the vortex throat continues to taper from the top, toward the bottom of the container due, in part, to the hydrostatic load of the overlying water, and a  downward lessening of the centrifugal force on the vortex. Because of the radial symmetry and inertia of the system, the vortex, as it eventually drains the container, is both long lasting and quite stable. 

In the first experiment, if the plug is temporarily reinserted (from beneath the container) the vortex throat constricts and rotation diminishes only to recover to some extent if the plug is removed. This suggests that the maintenance or reenergizing of the system is caused by the vertical descent and removal of the water at the vortex throat. This allows for the enhanced rotational motion of more distant surface water, that is approaching the center of rotation, to have a consequent increase of the centrifugal force. 
  
As an aside, if a large cup of coffee is briefly stirred, the coffee will quickly come to rest. If a thin stream of milk is poured from a sufficient height into the failing vortex, the vortex will recover because the falling milk energizes the toroidal structure of the coffee. The added milk reenergizes the vortex by inducing downward motion of the liquid, promoting a more energetic approach to the center of rotation. This reenergizing is similar to that occurring in the first experiment when the plug is removed the second time. The added milk also increases the height of the coffee toroidal in the cup, so that the coffee can fall further down the vortex. Also, fluid falling and approaching the bottom of the cup must move toward the wall. This is opposite, but correlatable, to the central motion of fluid within Einstein’s famous tea cup <H>.

<H> Tea leaf paradox - Wikipedia

In Einstein’s tea cup, the toroidal initially caused by stirring with the spoon causes a centrifugal force which compels the tea to flow toward and down the cup’s walls. This is similar to opening the throat of the water vortex but is constrained by the cup’s walls. This is helped along by the stadium effect at the liquid’s upper edge. It eventually reduces in height as the centrifugal force weakens because of a reduction in rotary speed of the spinning vortex. We note that the tea leaves start everywhere at the cup’s bottom, and they eventually gather away from the walls. This is because the stirring initially produces chaotic currents, thus causing the tea leaves (which are heavier than the liquid tea) to sit on the bottom. After the centrifugal force of the stirring becomes organized enough to create the toroidal, the leaves move toward its center due to the centripetal force at the bottom that completes the toroidal’s form.

This final movement of the leaves toward the center is similar to the closing of the open throat of the vortex. This process repeats the changing equilibrium condition of centrifugal and centripetal forces that form open and closed vortices. 

In the case of the water vortex, or the coffee cup, the energy of rotation is caused by gravity moving the fluid down the vortex and either escaping through the hole in the bucket, or flowing from the center of the bottom of the cup toward, and up, its walls.

The water vortex standing wave structure is very much like the one in air over the aforementioned star dune, but has a spiral component, and is moving down rather than up. The structure of the spiral arms (standing wave) remains essentially fixed through time even as the rotating water, or air in the case of hurricanes, or gas in the case of spiral galaxies, moves toward the vortex center along the standing waves’ arms. 


In time, as the water continues to drain in experiment 1, friction slows the rotation of the water, similar to the coffee cup. If left undisturbed, the vortex throat eventually will disappear, resulting in a nearly flat water surface that rotates quickly only near its center. The demise of the vortex and its standing wave suggests that the system described here only partially matches ongoing conditions found in nature because of the friction of the confining container and lessening of water depth and contained potential energy.


(Reverse Axial Flow) 

Surprisingly, if ink is dropped nearly to the bottom of the open throat of a strong water vortex, much of it is retained at the throat wall. In time, all of the ink can be seen to ascend the circular wall of the vortex and spread out on the upper water surface even as water is exiting the system at the bottom. The vortex throat has a fluted appearance, caused by the standing wave, that reaches to its top, and the ink rises up the throat wall to attain the upper water surface. That is, with or without the ink, water from far down the throat apparently ascends the throat in all vortices, but only at the throat’s surface (see “Giant Intake Vortex-Denison Dam, Lake Texoma 150605”, 0.15 sec, 0.23 sec, 0.33 sec, 0.36 sec, @1.33 min/sec) for the multiple ascent of water inside the throat of a water vortex. Obviously, water outside the vortex surface is still going down the drain. If some of the ink falls near (outside) the vortex throat it sinks because of its density, and can form a widening cylindrical ring around the vortex throat at depth, similar to the debris pattern often seen around tornado funnels. The ink ring eventually becomes destroyed through shearing by contact with water rotating at different radii. In the case of tornadoes, similar cylindrical rings are the result of centrifugal distribution of debris based on its availability, density, and aerodynamics.

Of interest here is that this rising water from just inside the wall of the vortex throat is analogous to the hot tower of the hurricane (Fig. 6), and has nothing to do with “release of latent heat during condensation”. Centrifugal/centripetal compression (equilibrium) at the open vortex wall, causing ink and more central water to rise, and the outer water to descend is similar to my suggestion that at the hot tower, air is centrifugally/centripetally compressed just outside the open eye, and then penetrates the eyewall. It is also seen in the funnel of the tornado (see next section). This suggests that if all vortices have a common origin, reverse axial flow should be seen not only in hurricanes and water vortices, but also in tornadoes  and spiral galaxies (see below). 


Experiment 2

(Vortex Formation)

The second water vortex experiment involves a gentle stirring of the water to one rotation per second before the plug is removed. In a few seconds a nascent vortex can be seen to develop along with the development of faint fluid salient arms. This condition lasts only for a few seconds because of friction of the water against the walls of the bucket, but it shows the initial stage of the development of fluid salient formation and the standing wave from nearly quiescent water. This observation, and the following, will be referred to in the section on galaxies. 


(Reverse Planar Flow)

Another experimental observation in experiment 2 involves blowing air against the top of the water vortex when the horizontal water surface is nearly flat and not rotating very fast. This apparently causes a frictional drag on the surface. The drag reveals evenly spaced radial waves or salients, rotating in a clockwise direction, that extend from the vortex throat, for a good distance across the surface of the water. This occurs while the water of the vortex is still rotating in a counterclockwise direction. It seems that the ascending flutes (fluid salients) of the standing wave of the vortex throat can splay out onto that surface if the surface is not rotating too quickly. They also overroll in the same direction as those in the vortex throat. This splaying out is repeated when the aforementioned ink, ascending the vortex throat, spreads out on the rotating horizontal water surface around the throat. If the vortex is rotating quickly, the complete standing wave structure is displayed as in Fig. 10, where the clockwise overrolling salients in the vortex throat, are seen to also overroll and extend out in a clockwise direction across the horizontal surface of the vortex.

Apparently, as seen in experiment 1, during slow rotation, the surface of the vortex still undergoes circumferential accordionization, but does not form an obvious standing wave of counterclockwise rotating fluid salients. The vortex throat also does not reveal a standing wave because it is also rotating too slowly. The clockwise surface fluid salients, as revealed by the air currents, suggest the counterclockwise fluid salients are present, but are not strong enough to be seen. The paradox of simultaneous overrolling, but reverse rotation, can be demonstrated using the following physical model. 

If a 20 cm length of 6 mm diameter soft Tygon® tubing can be held vertically and rotated in a counterclockwise direction simulating a standing arm in the throat of a water vortex; at the same time, bend the upper half of the tubing to form a right angle. This causes the horizontal portion to overroll and rotate in a clockwise direction, as do the flutes or salients on the horizontal surface of the water. This suggests that overrolling and reverse overrolling of salients may also occur in all vortices, depending on the speed of rotation.

In plan view, these rotating horizontal clockwise flutes or salients are tightly concave facing the throat because the horizontal surface water near the vortex throat is rotating more quickly in a counterclockwise direction. Further away the rotation of the surface water is slower, clockwise, and the overrolling produces a more open concave pattern. This reverse planar flow also appears in some spiral galaxies as discussed later. A good demonstration of this counter-rotation in water close to the vortex, but fading at distance, is seen in the last 20 seconds of following video <I>.


A final striking demonstration of counter-rotation in a water vortex was seen in a large decorative fountain at a mall. Some debris and bubbles over the vortex showed the water to be slowly rotating in a counterclockwise direction around the drain. There were no walls nearby to influence or hinder rotation, and water recirculation constantly maintained the vortex by providing a fixed water level in the fountain. As usual, water near the vortex throat rotated more quickly than water at a distance, but a standing spiral wave was not produced, apparently because water rotation and drainage were insufficient. However, on the flat rotating water surface around the drain, a stable, symmetrical central pinwheel formed directly over and around the center of rotation. It had a fixed number of evenly spaced, thin, curved arms of equal length, and its arms counter-rotated in a clockwise direction opposite to that of the water vortex. A series of capillary ripples were parallel to, and preceded, the concave edge of each arm in the rotating pinwheel. At a fixed, radial distance from the vortex center, each rotating spiral arm and associated capillary ripples terminated, suggesting each spiral arm produced and supported its bundle of associated capillary waves, and the activating counterclockwise subsurface salients also terminated at this point. It should be mentioned that I have seen counter-rotation in some sinks if their shapes happened to be appropriate and the water was shallow, suggesting friction and slowing against the bottom of the sink. Apparently, this reverse planar flow at a vortex is an integral part of this mechanism.


(Outflow)

I suggest that this blowing of air causes the counter-rotation (clockwise circulation) is akin to that seen at the tops of hurricanes (Fig. 9), due to cloud top pressure. “As air parcels are lifted within the eye of the storm the vorticity is reduced, causing the outflow from the tropical cyclone to have anticyclonic motion.” (see Wikipedia, Outflow (meteorology)). The “air parcels” are from outside the eyewall, are reduced in vorticity due to the outflow at the top of the hurricane and, like the Tygon® tubing, suffer a change in direction when they become oriented from vertical to horizontal.


Experiment 3

(No Vortex Formation)

 In the third experiment the completely filled container is quickly stirred and unplugged. It takes about six minutes to drain because of the centrifugal effects of the vortex and lessened hydrostatic effects near the drain hole. If the completely filled container is not stirred, it takes only about four minutes to drain instead of six. The water must first be allowed to completely come to rest so that a vortex is not able to form. In this experiment the hydrostatic load is uniform everywhere on the container’s bottom, including over the drain. Water motion is essentially radially inward and downward, and the water has little kinetic energy.

Tornadoes

(The Cause and Direction of Rotation of Tornado Swarms)

I suggest that the development of predominately cyclonic (counterclockwise) tornadoes, especially in the southeastern United States, commonly results from the overrolling of the forward edge of a fast moving westerly cold front over a warmer air mass which is moving north. This results in an axial extension of the overrolling front’s edge, assisted by the incorporation of warm air, which causes evenly spaced fluid salients to form. The salients further incorporate warm air at their leading edges, and then, being lighter, become elevated and incorporated as a high pressure ridge. This results in the selective reinforcement of the southern, counterclockwise (cyclonic) portions of each rising overrolling salient at their eastern fronts by the north-moving, near-surface warm air. These rotating spirals transport the near surface warm air upward, away from the earth’s surface. At the same time it results in the selective retardation and destruction of the clockwise (anticyclonic) rotating northern portions which are rotating downward and impotently spiraling toward the earth. This would explain the formation of evenly spaced tornadoes (swarms) that nearly always rotate in a counterclockwise direction in this region [1]. The vortex that forms is to some extent similar to the vortices of hurricanes, water vortices, and spiral galaxies, but they all have their own environment of formation. It should be noted that the general structure of tornado swarms is similar to that of beach cusps where a wave advancing onto a beachface overrolls, thins, laterally extends and forms evenly spaced fluid salients that induce cusp formation [2]. This, without any interfering motion of a current parallel to the length of the beach.

As an aside, tornadoes are often associated with hurricanes. I would suggest that they may be produced due to shearing between the air moving within two adjacent arms (rain bands) of the standing wave that makes up the hurricane. This structuring is similar to the low pressure troughs of easterly waves shearing against the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) that produces hurricanes, as previously mentioned here. Little has been said by workers about the direction of rotation of hurricane associated tornadoes, but if some rotate in a clockwise direction, I would suggest that the inner rain band was moving counterclockwise faster than the outer.


Snow (1984), speaks of tornado families (swarms) being spread “over a distance of 200 to 300 kilometers.” He also describes a vortex tube spinning about a horizontal axis, along a cold, east moving front, similar to my overrolling rubber cylinder (see Fig. 2, [2]). The vortex tube is then “deflected by a strong updraft”. I suggest that the uplift results from an axial extension/compression causing the formation of fluid salients that incorporate warm, near-surface air, and rise vertically because of their contained core of warm air). He states that the southern arm of an upflow has a counterclockwise spin, but “the clockwise-spinning side of the tube is generally in the storm’s precipitation downdraft.” Snow does not mention that tornado “families” can have an even spacing or that the clockwise-spinning northern side of the salients are all moving downward towards the earth. He just states that “the clockwise-spinning far side of the tube is generally in the storm’s precipitation downdraft” without observing that their the far side leading edge is rotating in a direction that is contrary to both the north-moving, near-surface warm air or the east-moving front. He also does not explain the counterclockwise direction of spin that tornadoes generally have in the Northern Hemisphere. As just suggested, the leading edges of the southern side of the salients will apparently be enhanced by the north-moving, near-surface warm air. This will cause those tornadoes to become more robust (Fig. 13).























Fig. 13. Diagram by Snow (1984) showing overrolling forward edge of a fast moving westerly cold front over a warmer air mass which is moving north. This results in an axial extension of the overrolling front’s edge, assisted by the incorporation of warm air, which causes southern half of the evenly spaced fluid salients to form and rise vertically, while the northern half seemingly rotate downward toward the earth and are also rotating against the flow of the warm air mass which is moving north.



An early graphic of a tornado swarm (Tepper, 1958) suggested to me that the fluid salient mechanism was in effect (Fig. 14), [1].


































Fig. 14. Area just east of the Texas Panhandle showing four tornadoes (black squares) aligned north-south in a ridge of high pressure. It seems obvious that a tornado is missing just south of the Red River (between Oklahoma and Texas) which would bring the total of the swarm to five evenly spaced tornadoes. This pattern led to a successful search for more complete data on swarms (see Figs. 15 and 16). 

























 Fig. 15. Tornado swarm tracks in Florida, February 22-23, 1998. Note even spacing of tracks.


Fig. 16. A more detailed central Florida tornado swarm. As can be seen, the four tornado paths are evenly spaced and represent the southern portions of fluid salients all probably rotating in a counterclockwise direction. Tornadoes #1 and #7 might have been predicted by the early recognition of the spacing between tornadoes #2 and #4, their direction, and the speed of the cold front. Tornadoes #3, #5 and #6 might have been predicted by the paths of tornadoes #2 and #4.


(Fluid Salient Mechanism)

As can be seen by comparing Figs. 14, 15 and 16, the depiction of the swarms is becoming more detailed, informative, and supports the fluid salient mechanism.

If the cloth physical model is supported over a hole in a flat surface, twisted, and pulled down, the evenly spaced swirling ridges and opening throat at height that are produced are suggestive of both the water vortex and a tornado. A common proof of a tornado’s passage and vortex structure is the number of twisted and damaged trees in its path, but videos of counterclockwise rotating tornadoes in North America are common.

As an aside, if the plunger of a closed hypodermic syringe containing a few drops of water is partially withdrawn, a cloud chamber is created. The moderate vacuum formed in the barrel produces whitish moisture droplets in this physical model because the air is expanded and adiabatically cooled. This is the same process occurring in the vortex of a tornado where reduced pressure causes the moisture of humid air to form droplets, a condensation funnel, which causes many tornadoes to be white in color. (See Wikipedia; Tornadoes, “Funnel Cloud” and “Appearance” for other colors) 

   
(Outflow) (Open Throat)

The classic cone-shaped funnel spiraling upward as air ascends the tornado is also found in the water vortex and, to some extent, in the hurricane. The air moving up the funnel cloud promotes an overshooting top for tornadoes similar to the outflow of hurricanes, and the drain of the water vortex accommodates the downward flow of water from the system. As with the water vortex, gravity is the main source of energy driving tornadoes because the weight of the overlying cold air, pressing down, forces the lower, warmer air to rise up the funnel. This is similar to the outflow of hurricanes at altitude. It is also important to note that the low-pressure region within the throat of the tornado is immediately adjacent to the region of the fastest rotation; the centrifugal-centripetal balance. The same is true for the hurricane, the water vortex and, as we shall see, the spiral galaxy. Also, the upward increase in the diameter of tornadoes may be due to both a decreased atmospheric pressure at altitude, and a centrifugal effect as seen in the stadium effect of hurricanes. The widening throat of the water vortex and the upward flow of water (and ink) within it also suggests evidence of a both a decrease in hydrostatic pressure and an increase in centrifugal spin that can transport water (and ink) upward to the water’s surface even as the main body of water flows down the vortex. As will be seen, the hurricane, water vortex, tornado, and even the spiral galaxy all have a number of similar structural aspects.


(Reverse Axial Flow)


Another aspect of tornado structure is the suspected central downdraft located about the central axis as the main flow is near the funnel wall and is directed upward (Fig. 17). This phenomenon is also seen in the hurricane, the water vortex, and the spiral galaxy. It will be discussed later.































Fig. 17. Central downdraft located about the central axis of a tornado. It is enclosed within the main flow adjacent to the funnel wall. 


Grand Design Spiral Galaxies


(Similarity of Galaxies to the Water Vortex and Hurricane)

The similarities between water vortices, satellite images of hurricanes and telescopic views of grand design spiral galaxies seems rather obvious. It is suggested here that all three phenomena, plus some aspects of tornado activity, have their structural origins based on a simple mechanism which I propose is the centripetal fluid salient model [1], in combination with a centrifugal effect. Just as water flows toward the drain, or air toward the low pressure center of a hurricane or funnel cloud, the tenuous gas and dust of space is gravitationally drawn toward the denser material of what will eventually become the galactic center. The site of the galaxy’s center would depend on the location of the center of mass of matter in a system in space. This would lead to the radial symmetry of the later-formed disk around that center. The galaxy would also gain a rotational spin because of random motions of the dust clouds and their asymmetrical gravitational attraction with regard to each other. This can eventually materialize into the puzzling spiral arms that so many galaxies exhibit (see Spiral Arms below). In spiral galaxies, the angular momentum, the formational history, and the gravitational attractions are strong enough to compress available gas to increase its density, and to become both circumferentially and axially compressed. This defines and maintains the galactic disk’s initial appearance, which includes its thinness, direction of spin, location, and attitude in space. The initiation of a proto-spiral galaxy is suggested by the second water vortex experiment (see above) where water that is very slowly rotating is able to generate a nascent vortex throat accompanied by the faint spiral standing wave of fluid salients.

Two scenarios present themselves in the formation of a spiral galaxy. The obvious one is a large dense cloud of dust and gas at the site of the proto-galaxy. This would gravitationally attract its own matter, and that of nearby smaller clouds, to its center. The second scenario would have the center of the proto-galaxy to initially be void of a dense gas cloud. A number of surrounding clouds would then undergo a resolution of attractive forces that would cause the proto-galaxy to evolve at the initially empty site. Noting that the contributing clouds would have diverse sites, various motions, sizes, and densities, the resulting galaxy would be of a size, attitude, and direction of spin that would resolve these various contributions. This evolution, over time, may lead to complexities in the appearances of galaxies that are not related to galactic collisions.

Grand design spiral galaxies can be divided into three portions; the central bulge, the disk containing visible spiral arms, and the galactic halo.


(The Central Bulge and Solid-Body Rotation)

Rotating fluid, as it tangentially approaches the center of a nascent vortex, will form a spiral. Depending on the relative strengths and equilibrium between the centrifugal and centripetal forces of the system, the spiral may or may not have an open throat as is the case of whirlpools, tornadoes, or hurricanes.

Galaxies present at least two types of central bulges (see Bulge (astronomy)-Wikipedia). Disky-bulges are analogous to the above-mentioned closed central area of the hurricane <C>, <E> and water vortex experiment 2, and <G> (1:00-1:10 min), where these vortices have not formed the open central area (eye or vortex throat). These are examples of centripetal fluid salients reaching the center of a vortex and are similar to the Keplerian rotation curve in disky-bulge galaxies were the velocity of rotation decreases with the square root of the radius. Disky-bulges contain stars that orbit in an ordered fashion, and form new stars at the same rate as in the disk, thus indicating that they have unrestricted access to the gas of the disk.

Classical bulges lack gas or dust and I suggest that they are the result of equilibrium between centrifugal (dust poor) and centripetal  (dust rich) forces as in the throat of water vortices and the eye of hurricanes which produce an opening at the center. The center of most galaxies reveal this structure as solid-body rotation about the center of the galaxy where there is a radial increase from zero to about 200 km/sec at its edge. Further out, the disk exhibits differential rotation with a speed that is about constant with the radius <J>.


These bulges are analogous to the vortex centers in hurricanes and the water vortex which also exhibit closed or open centers but do not exhibit solid-body rotation at their centers. The fastest rotating portion of the hurricane, water vortex and spiral galaxy are just at the edge of the open centers.


(Centrifugal and Centripetal Equilibrium)

The break in slope of the spiral galaxy rotation curve (around 220 km/sec) is the contact between the centrifugal and centripetal portions of the galaxy’s rotational areas. This critical rotational velocity separates the gas-poor solid-body rotation area from the gas-rich (outer) disk region of a galaxy and is at the greatest rate of rotation and greatest diameter of the solid-body. Going radially out from the eye or vortex throat the rotation of the hurricane or water vortex slows, but in the case of the galaxy, it maintains a flat rotation rate  and actually increases with distance resulting from the presence of dark matter (see outermost edge in Fig. 19 below).

The classical bulge is composed only of red old stars having random orbits in the gas- and dust-depleted environment. The disk region contains stars of various ages, confined to the gas-rich circular plane and all are orbiting in the same direction. 

Fluid in the other vortices escapes at the center. Since galaxies are relatively much reduced in the axial dimension, gas at the galaxy’s center would promote the development of a black hole since the rotation rate and centrifugal force there is very low. This is also true of any gas that has later crossed into the solid-body area.


(Spiral Arms)

If the center of a flat piece of cloth is placed on a flat surface and twisted, it produces evenly spaced stellate wrinkles of centripetal compression. They spiral in the center, their distal ends are at progressively greater separation. The wrinkles overroll towards their concave edges, and are contained in a circular, planar structure.

In space, this physical model translates into a sheet of gas of average density in the disk region and contains spiral arms that have a higher gas content. As mentioned earlier, the disk also contains stars of various ages, all orbiting in the same direction. The image presented by both faces of the galaxy could also be imagined in the twisted cloth model so that both clockwise and counterclockwise rotating faces are each presented by all spiral galaxies, depending on the observer’s point of view.

As a result of the exclusion of incoming gas into the bulge of a spiral galaxy, evenly spaced gas-rich arms just outside the bulge centripetally form as part of the circumferentially compressed circular disk of gas of average density. These arms form a thin, spiral standing wave that does not rotate (refer to the hurricane or water vortex portions of this essay). The arms (laterally separated by zones of retarded flow of average gas density) have a nearly circular spiral structure having a spiral twist that matches the rotation of the face of the disk which it presents to the observer. The number, length, and thickness of the arms would depend on the amount of gas initially present, its speed of rotation, gravitational attraction toward the center, and circumferential compression.


(Visible Spiral Arms and the Halo)

Paradoxically, the structure of the spiral arms should not be visible. They are made bright because the “Spiral arms typically contain the higher density of interstellar gas and dust than the Galactic average as well as a greater concentration of star formation” (See Wikipedia, Milky Way). That is, the spiral arms are made visible by causing already-formed stars to brighten as they move through and past the dense, gaseous fluid salients of the arms of the standing wave (see Fig. 7), or when new stars form in these more dense regions of gas. The arms’ brightness depends on the density of the gas and number of stars in them. The bright arms are separated by the dark zones of retarded flow which contain less gas, where stars may tend to dim as they enter, and no new stars form. The gas and the stars of the disk move together but are independent of the standing wave’s arms. However, comparing the geometry of spiral galaxies with other vortices, we see only that the vortex of the galaxy has been spread to about 180˚, has a short axial length, and that the face is a mirror image of its reverse face. This suggests that the solid-body should be considered to have the same symmetry. Inflow of matter along the axis may be due to the functioning of a black hole when present. The halo might supply incoming matter as it impinges on the spiral’s faces. Material also enters along the visible spiral’s outer edge.

Disk stars all orbit in the same direction and nearly the same plane, while halo stars have more randomly oriented orbits. Clusters of young stars are found only in the disk. Disk stars have a broad range of masses and colors. Halo stars have a low mass and are red. Gas and dust are abundant in the disk, but not in the halo.


The bright arms of the galaxy, where new stars are formed or old stars become brightened, give way distally to invisible portions (Fig. 18).
Fig. 18. A red and blue spiral galaxy. Note that the edges of the arms are bluish in this and in many other spiral galaxies, and the centers are often reddish. This suggests that in the disk, new stars, or rejuvenating old ones, are being engulfed by gas-rich portions of the spiral arms. The red portions of the arms form in the central axis of each arm. Owing to the magnitude of spiral arms, these separate, low pressure regions, have become gas-poor due to earlier star formation. Zones of retarded flow, in the fluid salient mechanism, lie between the arms and, due to shearing and drag, may aid in the development of their blue edges. The distal portions of the arms appear to fade, suggesting that their structures continue to form if there is sufficient gas available, but are not visible due to a lower gas concentration being unable to generate new stars. It would appear that the newly-formed stars have the same orbital velocity as the gas from which they have been formed.

The centripetal fluid salient mechanism is still at work outside the visible region, but the gas content is of insufficient concentration to form new stars to make the distal portions of the arms visible (See Wikipedia, Galaxy rotation curve). Also, the standing waves of the hurricane (Fig. 8), water vortex (Fig. 10), and the spiral galaxy (Fig. 18) all thin as they extend toward the center of their respective structures.


(Galaxy Rotation)

Based on the typical image of a spiral galaxy and that they have flat rotation curves with orbital speeds of approximately 220 km/second, it has been suggested that the inner portion of the disk should pull far ahead of the outer regions. This, in turn, would lead to the winding up of galaxies after a few revolutions. It is estimated that, based on the speed of rotation, the Milky Way, an average galaxy, has undergone fifty rotations since the origin of the known universe. Given that winding up of galaxies is not seen, it has been proposed that spiral arms are the result of the density wave theory of Lin and Shu (1964) (See Wikipedia, Spiral Galaxy) <K>. 


In this theory, they assume that a small amplitude wave propagates around the galaxy at a speed different from that of the galaxy’s gas and stars. They also assume that stars somehow travel in slightly elliptical orbits, which vary in their orientation in a smooth way with increasing distance from the galactic center. The varying spacing of the elliptical orbits gives the effect of arms (density waves). Star formation occurs when the gas clouds move into the density waves. As a result, the clouds collapse and form new, brighter stars because of shock waves being driven through the gas causing it to collapse and form two arms. The problem here is that spiral galaxies often have a larger, or uneven number of arms. This would require a very complex assemblage of elliptical orbits to be generated to produce a grand design spiral galaxy.

Again, the water of the vortex and the air of the hurricane rotate and migrate toward their respective centers where these fluids are removed. Their standing wave structures, however, do not rotate. The disk stars and gas of the spiral galaxy rotate about the galactic center but their spiral “arms” also remain stationary and do not wind up (see Fig. 7). I again suggest that the arms of grand design spiral galaxies are simply a non-rotating standing wave structure, based on the fluid salient mechanism, which develops and maintains an evenly spaced, spiral gaseous structure throughout the long history of the galaxy. As a result, Lin and Shu’s “density waves” may simply be the standing wave of centripetal spiral fluid salients of gas. The mechanism of the salients’ origins would be responsible for the development, maintenance, and symmetrical appearance of any number of spiral arms in a planar disk.

As mentioned, the spiral arms would then be made visible by causing the already-formed disk stars to brighten as they rotate through the  invisible fluid salient standing wave of dense, centripetally-moving gas, or for new stars to form in these regions. That is, the apparent winding up of the arms is deceiving. What is being measured is the movement of the brightening disk stars (or 21 cm hydrogen gas), not the spiral arms. The spiral arms are components of a standing wave which probably formed early and may be presently extending its arms distally if there is sufficient, tenuous, incoming gas. It is not winding up and is apparently overrolling in a direction dependent on the direction of rotation presented to the observer. As stated, the standing waves are separate from, and independent of, the motion of the disk stars. The disk stars maintain their flat rotational speed, are not winding up, and the disk stars are independent of the structure of the invisible standing wave of spiral arms. The arms do not rotate and have been shown, in the water vortex and hurricane, not to wind up. 


(Spiral Galaxy Rotation Curves) 


The rotation curves for the spiral portions of spiral galaxies are considered to be flat, and it is thought that they indicate a mass of unseen dark matter, forming a galactic halo, that is also the cause of the high speed at the outer limit of the spiral <J>. However, some rotation curves, including that of the Milky Way, have a wavy appearance in the inner portion, (Fig. 19). (See Wikipedia, Rotation Curves; images).



































Fig. 19. A “flat” plot of a galactic rotation curve, this one for the Milky Way. Note the first peak representing gas that is unable to enter the solid-body rotational area at the center of the galaxy. I suggest that this is at the point where the rotational speed (and centrifugal force) of the solid body is greatest (see Fig. 6), and is in equilibrium with the centripetal force of the disk. The next two (possibly three) evenly-spaced fast peaks may represent fluid salients at greater distances from the center, and the slow regions in between would represent the zones of retarded flow. At 30 thousand light years, the sun is located about midway within the spiral arm’s standing wave which fades at 60 thousand light years. This agrees with diagrams that show the sun’s location in the galaxy. The curve, rising from 60 to 100 thousand light years, represents tenuous gas not differentiated into the standing wave of bright arms and intervening dark zones, and more clearly shows the presence of dark matter. All measurements taken from the orbital speeds of 21 cm hydrogen gas or visible stars newly formed from that gas, versus their radial distance from the galaxy’s center.

As can be seen, the high points on the curve from 25 to 55 thousand light-years uniformly slope upward and are evenly-spaced. Since the curves are measured from the galactic center to the edge, they must cross the spiral arms and are located progressively further from the galaxy’s center.

Spiral galaxies tend to become more dense toward the galaxy’s center, and if we consider them to be a standing wave of centripetal fluid salients, partially consumed by, and responsible for, the brightness of the stars within them, then they represent gas that is moving, along a spiral arm, toward the galactic bulge. If the arms are stationary (standing), and new gas is added to their distal ends from more tenuous gas in the invisible portion of the spiral (Fig. 18), then that might be the cause of the reduced speed at the peaks, as the galactic center is approached. This centripetal force builds up at the edge of the solid-body rotational area where the centrifugal effect is at a maximum. That is, this decrease in velocity from the outer edge of the arms, toward the solid body, seems to be uniform if the peaks and depressions are averaged out. This decrease might result from increasing pressure of gas close to the center, with the high peak (already mentioned) next to the region of the solid-body, where the gas is brought to a halt by the centrifugal spin at the solid-body. This congestion might override the effects of the presence of dark matter in that region.


(Gas Content)

Galaxies can be characterized by their gas content. From gas-rich to gas-poor, the progression is: irregular, spiral, lenticular, elliptical <L>.


It should be noted that since each type of galaxy has very old stars, the gas content is not an evolutionary sequence. “The oldest stars in any galaxy all have about the same age of around 13 billion years. This means that spirals form as spirals, ellipticals form as ellipticals, and irregulars form as irregulars.” <M>, <N>. 




The class of irregular galaxies has no central bulge, disk, spiral arms or recognizable center, but does contain large amounts of gas and dust (and often young stars). This suggests that for irregular galaxies (as in water vortex experiment 2) a cloud of gas, possibly exhibiting some slight rotation, may be present as a precursor to spiral galaxies with the fluid salient mechanism eventually operating to produce an open center, spiral arms and disk formation having some or a lot of gas. 

In the disks of rotating S0 lenticular galaxies there is a lack of spiral arms, gas, and little ongoing young star formation. I suggest that the lack of spiral arms may be due to a deficiency of available gas in that locality causing the inability to create centripetal fluid salients or young stars. 

Elliptical galaxies are gas-poor, contain red stars, and have little or no global angular momentum. There is no orderly rotational pattern as various stars orbit the galactic center in different directions possibly because there was little rotation of the early gas cloud and therefore no chance to form disk stars. There is no spiral structure or centrifugal force present, and no equilibrium with the centripetal motion toward the galactic center to form a galactic bulge. These galaxies can contain black holes that may operate to make them gas-poor particularly since their lack of rotation would allow gas easily to exit the galaxy at its center. This early loss of gas is suggested by the third water vortex experiment. In that system, the water does not rotate, there is no formation of fluid salients or a vortex throat, and the water drains away quickly. As mentioned earlier, filling the water container without stirring can lead to minimal or no rotation in any direction and the absence of a vortex, depending on the presence or absence of initial, weak currents.

The formation and typical structure of any grand design spiral galaxy would be independent of any inferred gravitational influence of nearby galaxies except for those that are obvious. This, since it has been shown that there are too many galaxies which display spiral arms for them to all be caused by gravitational interaction with other galaxies. It has also been shown that spiral galaxies are more common in low-density portions of the universe where they would form and develop, without being influenced by other galaxies. Less symmetrical spirals have been discussed at the end of the second paragraph of the section entitled Grand Design Spiral Galaxies.


(Reverse Planar Flow)

The Reverse Planar Flow of fluid seen in the water vortex and hurricanes may also apply to galaxies. As previously mentioned, counter-rotation of waves is seen on the surface of slowly rotating water in nature as fluid salients splay out from the vortex throat <G>, or when the water surface is slowed by a flow of air in experiment 2 (see Water Vortices: Reverse Planar Flow). It also is seen when the rotating water in a sink is slowed by the sink’s bottom surface. Also, reverse motion of the outflow of hurricanes (Fig. 9) <F>, as the result of cloud top pressure causes the fluid salients (arms) to extend in a counter-current manner. 

This cloud top pressure may be analogous to the gravitational attraction of matter to the galactic face. Recently, x-ray telescopy has shown that hot gas is falling into both faces of spiral galaxy NGC 5746. This would add new material to the galaxy and provides information as to how old galaxies get the fuel to create new stars <O>. 


In addition, in NGC 4138, a cloud of hydrogen gas containing younger disk stars rotates in a direction counter to about 80 percent of mostly older stars <P>. 


To explain this phenomenon for NGC 4138 it has been suggested that “the counter-rotating disk may come from the accretion of a gas-rich dwarf companion, or may result from the continual infall of material with an opposite spin onto NGC 4138 from far outside.” I suggest in the case of NGC 4138, that no “opposite spin” of infalling material would be necessary. As in the case of the water vortex or hurricane, the rotation of the disk may cause the incoming gas (as with NGC 5746) to counter-rotate (because of backward overrolling and friction with the face) as it merges with the disk. This counter-rotation of in-falling material might result in the production of counter-rotating young stars. 


(Reverse Axial Flow) 

The principal function of spiral galaxies, recognized as the chief form of organized matter in the low-density regions of the universe, may simply be to accumulate and temporarily store excessive amounts of unorganized gas, dust, and dark matter in any one region. This   material, visible mostly through star activity and hydrogen ionization within the fluid salient arms may then be accommodated, where gas pressure is highest, by conversion into young stars, revitalization of old stars, or be drawn into black holes. The black holes then may release flares emanating at right angles to the galaxy’s disk, and thus carry away a great deal of matter from the system in the form of energy in the most efficient direction. Flair activity would then; limit the size of galaxies, help maintain them and their spiral arms, and maintain the mass of their portion of the universe in a long-term state of equilibrium. The axial movement of matter, away from either face, is reminiscent of the reverse axial flow of; 1) air traveling down, inside the hurricane’s eyewall, as air travels up outside the eye, 2) a central downdraft along the axis of a tornado as air travels up the funnel (Fig. 17), or 3) the flow of water down a vortex as water (and ink) flows up the surface of the throat. In these cases, the centrifugal force of the fastest rotating portion causes the central area to open to allow adjacent fluid to be motivated and flow in the opposite direction.  


(Overrolling of Spiral Arms)
    

One aspect of the spiral standing wave, here referred to a number of times, is the overrolling toward the concave side of salients formed when a planar cloth is twisted at its center. This is true regardless of what direction the twist takes for the water vortex and hurricane. This suggests that overrolling might also be exhibited by the arms of spiral galaxies. During the final research performed for this essay it was found that some workers early on did propose that overrolling exists in spiral arms, but that it is merely apparent, caused by the differential rotation of the spiral arms combined with bending of the galactic plane (Yuan and Wallace, 1973). Later researchers, however, find that the gas of the arms does, in fact, overroll (Feitzinger and Spicker, 1985). The mirror image of the faces suggests that the direction of overrolling is also mirrored by a bidirectional movement toward the concave side of the arms on either face of the galaxy. In light of the simple experiments performed in the present study, not only was overrolling observed in the water vortex, the hurricane, and predicted for spiral galaxies, but it can be traced to the fluid salient mechanism. 

Galaxies as Gyroscopes

Experiment 4

Much work has been done regarding the effects that colliding galaxies have on each other. This should result in a shift in mass of the galaxies in question. To try to simulate these conditions, a fourth water vortex experiment was devised. In it, the previously described five gallon bucket is suspended by its handle from a 1.25 m (4ft.-8in.) length of chain, and is one-third filled with water. The water is then caused to rotate as described, and the plug is removed to create a vortex. A second bucket must first be carefully positioned below to catch the falling water. 

Keeping the following orientation in mind throughout this discussion, if the hanging bucket is then displaced about 15 cm (5 in) to the left, this would simulate the gravitational attraction of a second galaxy approaching from the left, and the vortex should also move to the left. The lowest part of the vortex does move to the left because of its proximity to the drain hole which, being part of the bucket, also moves to the left. However, the main body of the vortex visually seems to move about 15 cm to the right. Quickly returning the bucket to its former position, the upper portion of the vortex attains its former location directly over the drain. In actuality, the upper portion of the vortex tends not move at all during this experiment, but endeavors to remain fixed in 3-D space throughout. This stability of the location of the vortex is caused by the vortex maintaining its structure and position due to the kinetic energy of its spin. It is presented here as a kind of aqueous (fluid) gyroscope. For the sake of this and any argument presented here, we must ignore any outside influences on the rotation and position of a galaxy.

This simple experiment suggests that approaching galaxies are not just gravitationally attracted to each other, but that the gyroscopic nature of the galaxies would be in conflict with their mutual attraction, and should be considered when discussing galactic collisions. It is also an important aspect of any vortex.

  
Barred Spiral Galaxies

It has been suggested that barred galaxies form as the result of a density wave radiating from the center of the galaxy. The bar appears to then channel gas inwards from the spiral arms so that new stars can be created within the bar. Barred galaxies are rather common temporary phenomena, present in two-thirds of all spiral galaxies, and their appearance does not seem to be unusual in the formational history of many galaxies (See Wikipedia: Barred spiral galaxy). 

In the simplest case, the center of mass of a cloud of incoming matter in any one locality would become the center of a galaxy as it forms. A galaxy’s spiral is thin and much compressed axially because of its rotational velocity and as we have shown, would tend to remain gyroscopically fixed in space. 

If the center of the galaxy has a classical bulge, then this region is comprised of tightly packed Population II older stars having random orbits and is gas-starved in a gas- and dust-poor environment. The bulge is spherical and the speed of rotation increases from near 0 at the pole to about 220 kilometers per second at the equator where it blends and is in equilibrium with the thin edge of the gas-rich centripetal spiral. This is where the rotational speed of the spiral is great enough to separate the gas-rich from gas-poor portions. This is similar to the arm-like standing waves of the spirals of; the cylindrical open eye of the hurricane, the low pressure funnel of the tornado, and the water vortex with its open throat. No new stars form in the bulge because less and less gas would be available at the galactic center opened.

Since the bulge has no spiral structure, is not axially compressed, is gas-free, and, over a large portion, has little or no unifying or strong kinetic energy, the slowly rotating spherical central mass of old stars might react to the approach of a gas cloud or another galaxy. Even as the spiral remains gyroscopically fixed in space, the gas-poor bulge would become gravitationally drawn out and extend toward the approaching mass. In so doing, it would invade the nearby spiral disk, gain access to the high-pressure gas of that region and would itself become gas-rich. It might then assume a bilaterally symmetrically balanced bar shape, centered in the bulge, due to an equalization of gas-pressure induced by centrifugal force. The entering gas would form a stellar nursery in the bar resulting in the various forms that barred spiral galaxies can exhibit. 

Since some galaxies produce bars as they evolve, it is not unreasonable to assume that a late-arriving, incoming, asymmetrical gas cloud or a nearby second galaxy would allow the speed of rotation to be maintained and add to the mass of the first galaxy. This would help to define the gas-rich and gas-free portions of the galaxy and would disturb only the bulge. This obviates the need of a “density wave” radiating from the center of the galaxy, as the origin of the bar’s formation. If there is a disconnect of the bar and the spiral, the bar might eventually disappear as the gas it contains is diminished by the formation of new stars and their evolution to old stars. There would then be a return to a barless central bulge containing only old stars.

A second explanation for the cause of bars may be most easily seen in those galaxies which exhibit only two arms (instead of several) that are symmetrical. This is the result of the centripetal fluid salient mechanism being able to form only two salients from two, diametrically  opposed, incoming gas clouds (60% of galaxies are spiral, 10% are 2-armed). These arms might result from a centripetal force briefly strong enough to become invasive so that high pressure gas from the salients would enter the bulge (or the bulge to become wider and invade the salients). Either condition might be sufficient so that a bar forms connecting the proximal ends of the two gas-rich arms.


Flocculent and Other Forms of Spirals

A variety of spiral galaxy patterns have been detected. The type described here to most comprehensively support the fluid salient mechanism contains two or more evenly spaced arms having a tenuous appearance. Flocculent spiral galaxies suggest a weak centripetal attraction of tenuous clouds that have not produced a robust fluid salient standing wave. Those galaxies exhibiting branching or broken arms, such as the Pinwheel galaxy, suggest a complex formational history in which the amount, direction and timing of incoming gas has varied, leading to a structural correction as the fluid salient mechanism further develops. Unusually formed spirals involved in the collision of two galaxies are obvious and need not be discussed here.


Comparable Features

The following is a list of the comparable features of hurricanes, water vortices, tornadoes, and grand design spiral galaxies: 

 1) The similar appearance of discoidal or elongate spiral structures.

 2) When the fluid is rotating slowly, there is a closed, central region.

 3) The central region becomes centrifugally/centripetally opened if the rotational speed exceeds a critical value and equilibrium is attained.

 4) The central region allows fluid incoming at the edge or face of the spiral to be eliminated along the axis as outflow.

 5) The central region also allows reverse axial flow movement of fluid along the axis. (hurricane’s eye, ink in water vortex throat, central downdraft of tornado, galactic flares).

 6) The top of the central region can be enlarged (as at the top of the water vortex, the hurricane’s “stadium” effect and the tornado). The opening at the top (and bottom) of the solid-body of the spiral galaxy serves the same purpose.

 7) The fastest rotating portion of the vortex is immediately adjacent to the central opening.

 8) The spiral is a rotating region of fluid displaying nearly circular rotation just outside the central region.

 9) The spiral is a long-lasting standing wave structure composed of several symmetrically displayed fluid salient arms.

10) Fluid travels quickly along the standing arms.

11) Separating the arms are zones of retarded flow.

12) There is a concave overrolling (twisting) of these arms near the central region.

13) There is a reverse planar flow or counter-rotation to the face of the water vortex, hurricane, and spiral galaxies.

14) All vortices function as gyroscopes. 

15) All vortices have a spiral/standing wave/toroidal/vortex structure.

Some of these features apply to tornadoes as well. These similarities suggest that hurricanes, water vortices, tornadoes, and grand design spiral galaxies all derive from the same centripetal/centrifugal fluid salient mechanism. There is a discussion of the Cartwheel Galaxy and fluid salients in [4].


CONCLUSIONS

The thrust of this essay is to provide an understanding of vortices based on the fluid salient mechanism. Owing to the similarities of the correlatable structures seen in the hurricane, the water vortex, grand design spiral galaxies and, often, the tornado, it suggests that although they differ in composition and setting, they should all be considered analogous, and can have the same centrifugal/centripetal fluid salient mechanism of origin. We might consider that the hurricane, natural whirlpool (water vortex), tornado and spiral galaxy all have gyroscopic properties, depending on their speed of rotation, which would be in conflict with their natural environments. This includes buffeting winds trying to shift hurricanes or tornadoes, water currents dislocating whirlpools and, especially, the conflicting energies involved in colliding galaxies. 

I feel it is not unreasonable that the disparate variety of phenomena described here and elsewhere [1], [2-8] can all be logically ascribed to the fluid salient mechanism in the diverse forms in which it can appear. I felt constrained to write this essay for, if nothing else, it should at least lead to further discussion. 

Questions, comments and criticism are very much welcomed and may be addressed to me at: Gorycki@yahoo.com


REFERENCES

Donn, W. L., 1965, Meteorology: McGraw-Hill, Inc., Third Edition, pp. 484. 

Einstein, A., 1926, Die Ursache der Meanderbildung der Flusslaufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes: Die Naturwissenschaften, 14 (11), p. 223-224. (See; “The Cause of the Formation of Meanders in the Courses of Rivers and of the So-Called Baer’s Law” by Albert Einstein)

Feitzinger, J. V. and Spicker, J., 1985, The Vertical Structure of Galactic Spiral Arms: The Velocity Asymmetries in HI Observations: Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, v. 214, p. 539-558.

Folk, R. L., 1971, Genesis of Longitudinal and Oghurd Dunes Elucidated by Rolling Upon Grease: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 82, p. 3461-3468.
     
Gorycki, M. A., 1973, Sheetflood Structure: Mechanism of Beach Cusp Formation and Related Phenomena: J. Geol., v. 81, p. 109-117.

Miller, C. A. and Edwards P.N., eds., Changing the Atmosphere, The MIT Press, 2001, 398 pp.

Lin, C. C. and Shu, F. H., 1964, On the spiral structure of disk galaxies: Astrophysical Journal, v. 140, p. 646-655.  

Rubin, V. C., 1983, Dark Matter in Spiral Galaxies: Scientific American, June, 13, p. 96-108.

Tepper, M., Tornadoes: Scientific American, May 1, 1958.

Snow, J. T., The Tornado, Scientific American, April 1984, pp. 86-96.

The New York Times, Tuesday, June 25, 1996, p. C1.

The New York Times, Tuesday, May 11, 1999, p. F1.


Yuan, C. and Wallace, Lance, 1973, The “Rolling Motion” Phenomenon in Galactic Spiral Arms: Astrophysical Journal, v. 185, p. 453-476.

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